Nepotism, orgies in the Apostolic Palace, and an alleged relationship with his daughter littered Pope Alexander VI's eleven-year papacy with scandal and controversy. Such transgressions tarnished Alexander's papacy. He is often referred to as the most corrupt Pope in the history of the Catholic Church.
Despite most commentators focussing on his misconduct, there is more to the reign of Alexander VI than first meets the eye. Let's examine the life, achievements, and criticisms of Alexander VI, analysing his contributions to the papacy and Catholicism in Europe.
Pope Alexander VI Biography
Let's look at the life of Catholicism's most controversial pope, Alexander VI!
Pope Alexander VI Timeline
Below is a brief timeline of the key events of Pope Alexander VI's life.
| Date | Event |
| 1431 | 1 Jan - Rodrigo Borja was born. |
| 1455 | Rodrigo Borja studied Law at the University of Bologna. |
| 1456 | Rodrigo was appointed Vice Chancellor of the Roman Catholic Church by his uncle Pope Callixtus III. |
| 1492 | Rodrigo Borja was appointed Pope Alexander VI. |
| 1493 | 25 May - Pope Alexander VI ceded land in Italy to create an alliance against Naples. |
| 1494 | The Italian War began. |
| 1495 | 31 March - Pope Alexander VI founded the Holy League; an alliance of Italian states created to defend against King Charles VIII of France. |
| 1498 | The end of the Italian War. |
| 1501 | 30 October - Pope Alexander VI held the Banquet of Chestnuts at the Apostolic Palace; the celebration quickly turned into an all-night orgy. |
| 1503 | 18 August - Pope Alexander VI died, and Julius II was elected. |
Pope Alexander VI Facts
Rodrigo de Borja was born in 1431 in Xativa, Spain. In 1445, aged just 14, Borja was appointed sacristan of Valencia Cathedral. Three years later, in 1448, Borja became a clergyman at the cathedrals of Barcelona, Valencia, and Sergobe.
Sacristan
A church official in charge of the sacristy, an area of the church that houses sacred objects and vestments.
While living in Rome, Borja studied law at the University of Bologna. In conjunction with his uncle's appointment as Pope Callixtus III, Borja's education allowed him to rise through the ecclesiastical ranks quickly. Upon his uncle's election as Pope, Borja was immediately appointed bishop of Valencia and Dean of Santa Maria. In 1457, Pope Callixtus III sent Borja as a papal emissary to Ancona to stop a revolt. Borja's mission was successful; as a result, he became Vice Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church.
Fig. 1 Alexander VI Coat of Arms.
Borja held the position of Vice Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church throughout five papacies; Callixtus III (1455-1458), Pius II (1458-1464), Paul II (1464-1471), Sixtus IV (1471-1484), and Innocent VIII (1484-1492).
After the death of Pope Innocent VIII in 1492, the 61-year-old Borja made his bid for the papacy. He was elected on 11 August 1492, assuming the name Alexander VI. The people of Rome were thrilled with the election of Alexander VI due to his ministerial competencies and long-serving reign as Vice Chancellor.
Pope Alexander VI Achievements
Despite a reign marred in controversy, Alexander VI oversaw some significant achievements during his reign as Pope.
Crime
During the appointment of Alexander VI, Rome was awash with crime and violence. Pope Alexander VI quickly and effectively quelled such disruption by splitting Rome into districts. Each district had its own police force and a court system to ensure criminals were caught and imprisoned. As well as dealing with internal crime, Pope Alexander VI fortified Rome's city walls to fend off foreign invaders.
Patron of the Arts
Pope Alexander VI helped found the University of Rome, built the Apostolic Chancery, approved plans for the creation of the University of Valencia, and even petitioned King James IV of Scotland to found King's College Aberdeen.
Fig. 2 Portrait of Pope Alexander VI by Pedro Berruguete.
A keen observer of the fine arts, Pope Alexander VI embellished the Vatican palaces, restored the Castle Sant'Angelo, and cajoled Michelangelo into designing plans for St Peter's Basilica. Pope Alexander VI supported celebration and tradition. He proclaimed the year 1500 the Holy Year of Jubilee, commissioning an extravagant celebration in its honour.
Claiming the New World
After Christopher Columbus' discovered the New World in 1492, Pope Alexander VI issued a Papal Bull entitled 'Inter Caetera'. Issued on 4 May 1493, the Papal Bull gave Spain exclusive rights to explore and lay claim to the New World. The Bull stated that Christian rulers could claim non-Christian lands and declared that 'the Catholic faith and the Christian religion be exalted and be everywhere increased and spread'.1
Papal Bull
A decree issued by the Pope.
France
Throughout his tenure as Pope, Alexander VI made a series of intelligent alliances to ensure Rome's security while forwarding the interests of his family. Shortly after becoming Pope, Alexander VI faced the French invasion of Italy. After claiming Naples, Charles VIII of France marched into the Papal States. Alexander VI didn't engage, allowing Charles to pass unopposed through Rome towards the Ottoman Empire.
In 1499, Alexander switched allegiances, supporting Louis XII's invasion of Milan during the Second Italian War. On 31 March 1495, the Holy League was formed between Alexander VI, Ferdinand of Spain, Venice, and the duke of Milan. Nominally the League was formed in opposition to the Turks. In reality, it formed as an alliance against Charles VIII.
Reform
On 14 June 1497, Alexander VI's son Juan was murdered. Severely saddened by his loss, Alexander embarked on a series of reforms to curb the affluence of the papal court and restructure the Apostolic Chancery. Such far-reaching reform was well needed.
Alexander VI headed the Catholic Church when the Curia – the governing body of the Vatican – was acting increasingly recklessly. Seeking reform, Alexander VI established a group of trusted cardinals to help combat such irresponsibility. He set plans such as:
- New Rules and Laws on the sale of Church property.
- A new code of ethics for clerics.
- Cardinals were allowed only one bishopric.
Due to his untimely death in 1503, most of these papal reforms were unfortunately not carried out. However, his forward-thinking attitude set a precedent for future Popes to reform the papal hierarchy.
Bishopric
The region under the control of a Bishop.
Pope Alexander VI Controversies
One of the most controversial Popes, the reign of Pope Alexander VI was littered with scandal and outrage. Let's look at some of these defining moments of controversy.
Savonarola
Girolamo Savonarola was a Dominican friar, preacher, and philosopher known for his fiery sermons about the immorality of the Church and the oncoming apocalypse.
Fig. 3 Portrait of Girolamo Savonarola by Fra Bartolomeo.
On 13 May 1497, Pope Alexander VI excommunicated Savonarola. For the Dominican friar, excommunication marked the beginning of the end. On 23 May 1498, Savonarola was tortured and executed.
Slavery
After Christopher Columbus landed in the New World, Pope Alexander XI issued a series of Papal Bulls, which confirmed Spanish ownership of the newly found lands. He issued:
- Eximiae devotionis (3 May 1493)
- Inter caetera (4 May 1493)
- Dudum Siquidem (23 September 1493
Historians have criticised the Bulls, concluding that they gave the power to enslave indigenous people in the name of Christianity.
Nepotism
Once he became Pope, Alexander VI wasted no time using his influence to progress the interests of his family. He appointed ten of his family to the College of Cardinals; these appointees include his teenage son and the brother of his mistress. While nepotism was a common tenet in the 15th-century papacy, Pope Alexander VI pushed the accepted boundaries to their very limits.
Banquet Of Chestnuts
On 30 October 1501, Pope Alexander VI held the Banquet of Chestnuts at the Apostolic Palace. The celebration quickly turned into an all-night orgy, with the inner circle of the papacy enlisting the services of some 50 prostitutes. The Papal master of ceremonies, Johann Burchard, wrote in his diary:
Chestnuts were strewn around, which the naked courtesans picked up, creeping on hands and knees between the chandeliers, while the Pope, Cesare, and his sister Lucretia looked on. 2
- Johann Burchard
Pope Alexander VI Cause of Death
On 12 August 1503, Alexander VI became grievously ill. Shortly before falling ill, he and his illegitimate son, Cesare, attended a dinner party hosted by Cardinal Adriano Castellesi. All three men were unwell, leading many commentators to suspect poisoning. According to an eyewitness account, Cesare 'lay in bed, his skin peeling and his face suffused to a violet colour'.3 While Cesare eventually recovered, his father did not.
He ended the Mass at which were present five cardinals, Serra, Juan and Francesco Borgia, Casanova and Loris. The Pope told them that he felt very bad. At the hour of vespers after Gamboa had given him Extreme Unction, he died.4
- Johann Burchard
Fig. 4 Painting of Alexander VI meeting St Peter by Titian.
According to Alexis Celadoni, the bishop of Gallipoli, Pope Alexander VI supposedly repented profusely before dying.
When at last the Pope was suffering from a very severe sickness, he spontaneously requested, one after another, each of the last sacraments. He first made a very careful confession of his sins, with a contrite heart, and was affected even to the shedding of tears.5
- Alexis Celadoni
The Pope after Alexander VI
Pope Julius II succeeded Pope Alexander VI after his death on 12 August 1503. Known as the 'Warrior Pope', Julius II led the Catholic Church for a decade. During his tenure as Pope, Julius regenerated the papacy as a political force, using military action to restore the Papal States. He was heavily involved with the League of Cambrai's defeat of Venice in 1509 and attempted to remove the French from Italy in 1510.
As well as his political and military victories, Pope Julius II was heavily involved with the arts. As patron of the Arts, he commissioned artists such as Raphael and Michelangelo as well as authorising Bramante to build a new St Peter's Basilica.
League of Cambrai
An anti-Venetian alliance between Julius II (papacy), Ferdinand II (Spain), Louis XII (France), and Maximilian I (Holy Roman Empire).
Significance of Pope Alexander VI
Undoubtedly one of the most controversial Popes in Catholic history, Alexander VI's reign was marred by nepotism, corruption, and infidelity. While it is easy to let such misgivings define his reign, his papacy was much more complex than most historians credit him.
After the murder of his son, Alexander VI assembled a group of cardinals to establish a series of far-reaching reforms. Such policies sought to limit the power of the Curia, stamp out financial abuses, and instil a new code of ethics for clerics. While his death meant that such policies were not carried out, his reformist legacy would have a lasting impact on Catholicism.
Amid the Protestant Reformation, Pope Paul III drew inspiration from Alexander VI, assembling the Council of Trent to rid the clergy's abuses of the clergy and reform the very institution of the Catholic Church. While Pope Paul III takes credit for the comprehensive Counter-Reformation, it was Alexander VI who engendered reformism in the Catholic Church.
Pope Alexander VI – Key takeaways
- Born on 1 January 1431, Rodrigo Borja was appointed Pope Alexander VI in 1492.
- While his reign was often characterised by nepotism, corruption, and infidelity, he prompted reformism in the Catholic Church. Unfortunately, Alexander VI died before such policies could be carried out.
- Pope Paul III implemented Alexander VI's proposed reformist policies. He launched a series of extensive reforms during the Counter-Reformation.
- As well as instigating reform, Alexander VI founded the Holy League, Catholicised the New World, and was successful as a patron of the Arts.
- Alexander VI died in 1503 and was replaced by Julius II – the 'Warrior Pope'.
References
- Pope Alexander VI, Demarcation Bull Granting Spain Possession of Lands Discovered by Columbus (1493)
- Johann Buchard, Pope Alexander VI and His Court: Extracts From the Latin Diary of Johannes Burchardus (1506) ed by F. L. Glaser (1921)
- Georgina Mason, The Borgias (1982) p. 179.
- Johann Buchard, Pope Alexander VI and His Court: Extracts From the Latin Diary of Johannes Burchardus (1506) ed by F. L. Glaser (1921) p. 179.
- Peter de Roo 'Material for a History of Pope Alexander VI' vol 5. (1924) p. 89.
